Gillick competence: an inadequate guide to the ethics of involving adolescents in decision-making.

Developmentally, adolescence sits in transition between childhood and adulthood. Involving adolescents in their medical decision-making prompts important and complex ethical questions. Originating in the UK, the concept of Gillick competence is a dominant framework for navigating adolescent medical decision-making from legal, ethical and clinical perspectives and is commonly treated as comprehensive. In this paper, we argue that its utility is far more limited, and hence over-reliance on Gillick risks undermining rather than promoting ethically appropriate adolescent involvement. We demonstrate that Gillick only provides guidance in the limited range of cases where legal decisional authority needs to be clarified. The range of cases where use of Gillick actually promotes adolescent involvement is narrower still, because several features must be present for Gillick to be enacted. Each of these features can, and do, act as barriers to adolescent involvement. Within these limited situations, we argue that Gillick is not specific or strong enough and is reliant on ethically contestable principles. Moreover, in most situations in adolescent healthcare, Gillick is silent on the ethical questions around involving adolescents. This is because it focuses on decisional authority-having the final say in decision-making-which is one small subset of the many ways adolescents could be involved in decision-making. The implication of our analysis is that use of Gillick competence tends to limit or undermine adolescent involvement opportunities. We propose that those working with adolescents should be judicious in seeking Gillick's guidance, instead drawing on and developing alternative frameworks that provide a comprehensive model for adolescent involvement.

Shepherding parents to prepare for end-of-life decision-making: a critical phenomenological study of the communication approach of paediatricians caring for children with life-limiting conditions in Australia.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Shared decision-making is widely accepted as the best approach for end-of-life decision-making for children with life-limiting conditions. Both paediatricians and parents find benefit in preparing for such decisions. However, little detail is known about this preparatory process. This study aims to explore how paediatricians prepare parents for end-of-life decision-making for a child with a life-limiting condition using clinical simulation. DESIGN: Individual, semistructured, post-simulation qualitative interviews of paediatricians and parent-actors. SETTING: Acute intensive and long-term outpatient paediatric care in Victoria, Australia. PARTICIPANTS: 18 purposively sampled paediatricians who treat children with life-limiting conditions and the two parent-actors involved in all simulations. Paediatricians were excluded if they assisted in the study design, worked within specialist palliative care teams or did not provide clinical care outside the neonatal period. RESULTS: Three key themes in a preparatory process (termed 'shepherding') were identified: (1) paediatricians aim to lead parents along a pathway to future end-of-life decisions, (2) paediatricians prefer to control the pace of these discussions and (3) paediatricians recognise they need to have courage to face risk with this preparation. Paediatricians use a variety of shepherding strategies to influence the pace, content and framing of discussions, which may help prepare parents to make the best end-of-life treatment decisions when the time comes. CONCLUSIONS: Shepherding is a newly identified, subtle process intended to influence parents by guiding their understanding of their child's health and potential suffering in advance of decision-making. Shepherding does not fit within current descriptions of physicians' decision-making influence. Paced reflection, thinking and provision of information are shepherding strategies preferred by paediatricians, and these appear the same regardless of whether paediatricians intend to steer parents towards particular treatment decisions or simply prepare them for the process of decision-making. Further study about the intention of this influence and parental perception of this communication is needed.

Truth-telling to the seriously ill child - Nurses' experiences, attitudes, and beliefs.

BACKGROUND: Nurses play an integral role in the care of children hospitalised with a serious illness. Although information about diagnostics, treatments, and prognosis are generally conveyed to parents and caregivers of seriously ill children by physicians, nurses spend a significant amount of time at the child's bedside and have an acknowledged role in helping patients and families understand the information that they have been given by a doctor. Hence, the ethical role of the nurse in truth disclosure to children is worth exploring. METHODS: A systematic academic database and grey literature search strategy was conducted using CINAHL, Medline Psych Info, and Google Scholar. Keywords used included truth, children, nurse, disclosure, serious illness, and communication. A total of 17 publications of varying types were included in the final data set. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS: As this was a review of the literature, there were no direct human participants. Empirical studies included in the review had received ethics approval. RESULTS: Of the 17 articles included in the review, only one directly reported on the experiences of nurses asked to withhold the truth from patients. Empirical studies were limited to HIV-positive children and children diagnosed with cancer and the dying child. CONCLUSION: A paucity of literature exploring the experiences, attitudes, and beliefs of nurses with regard to truth-telling to seriously ill children is evident. Little consideration has been given to the role nurses play in communicating medical information to children in a hospital setting. The 17 articles included in the review focused on cancer, and HIV, diagnosis, and end-of-life care. Further research should be undertaken to explore the experiences and attitudes of nurses to clinical information sharing to children hospitalised with a wide range of serious illnesses and in diverse clinical scenarios.

Parental perspectives on the clinician's approach to serious illness communication: A qualitative study.

OBJECTIVES: To explore the perceptions of parents caring for a child with a life-limiting condition on approaches to communication used by clinicians engaging in routine serious illness communication. METHODS: An exploratory qualitative design was used, employing a thematic analysis of data derived through semi-structured interviews which presented hypothetical vignettes of serious illness conversations to elicit parental perspectives. Adult parents of children with a life-limiting condition, in a stable phase of care, known to the Neurodevelopment and Disability Department of a tertiary Children's Hospital in Melbourne, Australia, were purposively sampled to achieve a broad representation of relevant clinical and sociodemographic factors. RESULTS: Eleven parents (72% female) of children aged 7 months to 18 years participated. Two major themes characterized parental perspectives on serious illness communication: "Approaches clinicians can use to lay the foundation for quality communication" including checking in, validation, aligning with hopes and a commitment to listening and being present; and "Approaches clinicians can use to aid the delivery of information" including honesty and compassion, presenting possibilities, providing a plan, and conveying the clinician's experience. SIGNIFICANCE OF RESULTS: This study provides novel insights into the perspectives of parents of children with life-limiting conditions that inform how clinicians may best approach serious illness communication. The findings highlight the need for clinicians working in pediatric health care to be cognizant of parents' needs before and during conversations. Laying the foundation for quality communication is important alongside the approaches outlined that aid in the delivery of information.

Ethics at the end of life in the newborn intensive care unit: Conversations and decisions.

The unexpected birth of a critically ill baby raises many ethical questions for neonatologists. Some of these are obviously ethical questions, about whether to attempt resuscitation, and, if the baby is resuscitated and survives, whether to continue life sustaining interventions. Other ethical decisions are more related to what to say rather than what to do. Although less obvious, they are equally as important, and may also have far-reaching ramifications. This essay presents the story of a newborn with profound hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, and reviews decisions regarding resuscitation, withdrawal of mechanical ventilation, withdrawal of medically administered nutrition and hydration, and active euthanasia. An overview of the ethical issues at work at each decision point is presented, as well as guidance regarding discussions with parents throughout the process, including specific wording. This may serve as a helpful guide for ethical deliberation, and helpful scripting for parental discussion, in similar cases.

Navigating two 'truths': a qualitative study of physician-led end-of-life decision-making for children with life-limiting conditions.

OBJECTIVE: To describe how paediatricians undertake the process of end-of-life decision-making for a child with a life-limiting condition who is unable to participate in decision-making for themselves. DESIGN: A qualitative phenomenological study using semistructured interviews based around a clinical vignette matched to the clinical practice of individual paediatricians. Verbatim transcripts underwent thematic analysis. SETTING: Paediatricians practising in Victoria (Australia) between mid-2019 and mid-2020. PARTICIPANTS: Twenty-five purposively sampled paediatricians caring for children with specific life-limiting conditions: children with severe neurodisability, oncological or haematological malignancies or complex cardiac disease in an inpatient intensive care or outpatient clinic setting. RESULTS: A process of physician-led end-of-life decision-making was described. Paediatricians first contemplate that the child's death is approaching, then prepare themselves by ensuring there are no reversible factors at play. They then inform parents of this view and, if needed, hold discordant views between parents and themselves about the child's death in a 'fruitful tension'. Ultimately, they seek to bring parents' views of their child in line with theirs to facilitate goal alignment. CONCLUSIONS: Paediatricians feel responsible for facilitating the alignment of parental understanding of the child's health status with their own. This is achieved either through direction or by holding differences between parental and medical truths about the child's health in tension to provide time, space, and clarity. This alignment was seen as key to enabling end-of-life treatment decisions, without which conflict in end-of-life decision-making can arise or persist.

The scope of ethical dilemmas in paediatric nursing: a survey of nurses from a tertiary paediatric centre in Australia.

BACKGROUND: No previous study has provided evidence for the scope and frequency of ethical dilemmas for paediatric nurses. It is essential to understand this to optimise patient care and tailor ethics support for nurses. RESEARCH AIM: The aim of this study was to explore the scope of nurses' ethical dilemmas in a paediatric hospital and their engagement with the hospital clinical ethics service. RESEARCH DESIGN: This study used a cross-sectional survey design. PARTICIPANTS AND RESEARCH CONTEXT: Paediatric nursing staff in a tertiary paediatric centre in Australia completed an online survey asking about their exposure to a range of ethical dilemmas and their knowledge of the clinical ethics service. Analysis used descriptive and inferential statistics. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS: Ethical approval was granted from the hospital research committee. The survey was anonymous, and no identifying details of participants were collected. RESULTS: Paediatric nurses experienced a wide range of ethical dilemmas frequently, both in the intensive care and general areas. Knowledge and use of the clinical ethics service was poor and the most frequent challenge for nurses in managing dilemmas was feeling powerless. CONCLUSION: There is a need to recognise the moral burden of ethical dilemmas for paediatric nurses in order to foster ethical sensitivity, and to provide adequate support to improve care and mitigate nursing moral distress.

Crossing the line? Ethics of parenteral nutrition in paediatric neurodisability complicated by intestinal failure.

Children with severe neurological impairment (such as cerebral palsy or congenital anomalies) are living longer, although medically complex, lives. Feeding intolerance is an increasing problem that is emerging as a new end-of-life issue. Long-term parenteral nutrition (LTPN) is technically feasible in these children. However, clinicians are concerned about whether it is appropriate in these circumstances or whether it constitutes a treatment 'too far'. This narrative review of the literature identifies, categorises and explores the ethical foundations and reasons for clinician hesitancy about the use of LTPN in this population. The categories of reasons are: lack of clear diagnostic criteria for feeding failure; risks of LTPN to the child; burden of LTPN to the family/caregivers; burden of LTPN to the child; difficulty in cessation of LTPN; and the concept that feeding failure may be a preterminal sign. These reasons are all ultimately about risks and burden outweighing the benefits. We argue that the risks of LTPN have decreased over time, the burden for individual children and their parents may be less than imagined, and the benefit is a realistic prospect. Case-by-case consideration, giving due weight to child and parental perspectives, can show that LTPN is ethically justified for some children with severe neurological impairment.

Informing Simulation Design: A Qualitative Phenomenological Study of the Experiences of Bereaved Parents and Actors.

INTRODUCTION: Simulations, which represent reality, are effective in pediatric healthcare communication skills education and training. Parents are increasingly engaged in simulation development, particularly for authentic character development, to help achieve greater psychological fidelity. For simulated encounters related to a child's end-of-life, involvement of bereaved parents would make sense. However, this is challenging because there is limited research to guide their inclusion and significant responsibility for any approach to be thoughtful and psychologically safe for participating parents. This study explores the impact and experiences of bereaved parents and actors who participated in simulation design. METHODS: This qualitative phenomenological study involved five bereaved parents and two actors who participated in a full-day workshop to design and develop characters for use in a simulation. Individual semistructured interviews were conducted up to four weeks after the workshop. Data collected from these telephone interviews were analyzed using inductive content analysis. RESULTS: Bereaved parents found the workshop emotionally challenging but positive, worthwhile, and beneficial. Similarly, actors found the workshop helpful in character development and, although it was an intense experience for them, it validated the importance of their work. Key elements of our research findings could inform future such activities. CONCLUSIONS: Involving bereaved parents in simulation design can be psychologically safe and beneficial for both parents and actors. Ongoing involvement of bereaved parents may lead to higher-quality simulated experiences, allowing clinicians to practice skills to enhance care provided at a child's end-of-life.

Understanding adolescent girls' and young women's health-seeking for female genital cosmetic surgery: How can clinicians help their patients?

AIM: This study aimed to understand why adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) would seek consultation with a health professional about genital appearance concerns and/or request female genital cosmetic surgery (FGCS). The information derived from these participant interviews can inform clinical practice and help clinicians better navigate consultations with young women and girls requesting FGCS. METHODS: A qualitative exploratory study was conducted using in-depth, semi-structured interviews with AGYW (n = 11) in Victoria, Australia. Participants comprised 11 AGYW who sought consultation with a health professional when aged 13-19 years for genital appearance concerns and/or requests for FGCS. Key themes were identified using a thematic analysis approach. RESULTS: Of 11 participants, five had undergone FGCS between the ages of 13 and 23 years. Key reasons for seeking a consultation identified in the interviews included: ideas about what 'normal' genitals look like, experiences of sexual harassment and bullying, and concerns about genital appearance developing before sexual debut. CONCLUSIONS: It is important to understand why AGYW want to access these procedures, given the risks involved, and that FGCS is not recommended by paediatric specialist organisations. Understanding why AGYW seek consultation for FGCS can help inform clinical practice, and the views expressed by participants in this study can help clinicians who work in this area to better support their patients.

Ethical challenges faced by healthcare workers in pediatric oncology care during the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia.

OBJECTIVE: This qualitative study examined ethical challenges reported by healthcare professionals (HCPs) working in a large Australian pediatric oncology center during a period of strict COVID-19 restrictions. METHODS: We conducted semi-structured interviews with 21 HCPs who provided pediatric cancer care during the pandemic in 2020, during strict lockdown periods. Interviews examined the difficulties they faced, as well as their own ethical evaluation of the impact of COVID-19 policies on oncology care. Data were analyzed using inductive content analysis and thematic analysis. RESULTS: HCPs faced several challenges, primarily originating from hospital restrictions, which led to changes in usual clinical practices. These challenges included delivering care with personal protective equipment (PPE), the impact of a one-parent visitation policy, changes in psychosocial and allied health services, and COVID-19 swabbing policies. Overall, there was consensus from participants that hospital restrictions were justified and, while difficult, HCPs simply had to provide the best care possible given the circumstances. However, participants described decreased capacity to deliver holistic patient care and, in some instances, a tendency to avoid ethical reflection. Lastly, there was a consistent theme of shame and sense of responsibility underlying some participants' anxiety around inadvertently transmitting COVID-19 to immunocompromised patients. CONCLUSION: Our findings show that many staff felt unease at the disruptions in patient care due to COVID-19 restrictions. Some HCPs indicated a degree of moral distress, with a possibility of moral injury among some HCPs. A focus on ethical recovery could assist in preventing any ongoing difficulties among HCPs because of their experiences.

Rapid Genome Sequencing: Consent for New Technologies in the Neonatal Intensive Care Context.

The clinical utility of rapid genome sequencing (rGS) in critically unwell infants has been consistently demonstrated, and there are calls for rGS to be implemented as a first-line test in the NICU. A diagnosis from rGS can enable rapid initiation of precision treatment, making it potentially lifesaving. However, in many patients rGS leads to the diagnosis of severe and life-limiting conditions, prompting discussion with families about withdrawal of life-sustaining treatment. The complexity of information about rGS, together with the heightened emotions of parents in the NICU, poses significant challenges for informed decision making in this context. We present a case where both parents are unable to provide informed consent, and the treating team must decide whether to proceed with rGS. Our discussion highlights the important differences between genome sequencing and other types of genetic testing, and the crucial role played by pre-test counseling in facilitating informed consent and preparing parents for a range of possible outcomes. We then discuss the consent paradigms at play in NICUs; whereas admission generally comes with an understanding that the treating team will perform interventions thought to be in the best interest of the child, rGS is substantially different because of its long-term implications for patients and family members. Finally, we look at the ethical interplay between parental consent and the interests of the child. We conclude by showing how cases like this are resolved at our tertiary center and how they may be resolved differently in future.

Addressing Moral Distress: lessons Learnt from a Non-Interventional Longitudinal Study on Moral Distress.

BACKGROUND: Moral distress is prevalent within the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) and can negatively affect clinicians. Studies have evaluated the causes of moral distress and interventions to mitigate its harmful effects. However, the effects of participating in moral distress studies have not been evaluated. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the impact of participation in a longitudinal, non-intervention research project on moral distress in the NICU. DESIGN: Clinicians who previously participated in an 18-month longitudinal research study on moral distress at two NICUs were invited to complete a questionnaire on the impact of participation. The original study required regular completion of surveys that sought predictions of death, disability and the intensity/nature of moral distress experienced by clinicians caring for extremely preterm babies. Individual and unit-wide effects were explored. Free-text responses to open-ended questions were analyzed using inductive content analysis. RESULTS: A total of 249/463 (53%) eligible clinicians participated. Participation in the original 18-month study was perceived as having a positive impact by 58% of respondents. Clinicians found articulating their views therapeutic (76%) and useful in clarifying personal opinions about the babies (85%). Free-text responses revealed the research stimulated increased reflection, validated feelings and increased dialogue amongst clinicians. Respondents generally did not find participation distressing (70%). However, a small number of physicians felt the focus of discussion shifted from the baby to the clinicians. Intensity and prevalence of moral distress did not significantly change over the 18-month period. CONCLUSIONS: Participating in moral distress research prompted regular reflection regarding attitudes toward fragile patients, improving ethical awareness. This is useful in clarifying personal views that may influence patient care. Participation also enhanced communication around difficult clinical scenarios and improved provider satisfaction. These factors are insufficient to significantly reduce moral distress in isolation.

Telling the truth to seriously ill children: Considering children's interests when parents veto telling the truth.

How should clinicians respond when parents will not allow their child to know the truth about their medical condition and treatment? There is wide consensus amongst clinicians and ethicists that children should be given "honest" information delivered in a developmentally appropriate manner. However, the basis in ethical theory is not clear, especially for pre-adolescents. These children are old enough to understand some information, but are not yet "mature minors" capable of making their own health care decisions. We take the position that thinking in terms of a child's "right to know" is not the most helpful in dealing with the ethical complexity of these situations. We propose that questions of truth-telling are best addressed in terms of how a child's interests are promoted or set back by being told the truth. Our first step is to give an account of the concept of children's interests in general. Then we relate that account specifically to truth-telling. In doing so, we use a relatively straightforward hypothetical but realistic case, in order to illustrate how ethical deliberation using interests would proceed. The case is not intended to be particularly contentious or difficult, so that the focus is on the nature of the ethical reasoning, rather than any complexities of the case.

Conceptualising paediatric advance care planning: a qualitative phenomenological study of paediatricians caring for children with life-limiting conditions in Australia.

OBJECTIVES: Advance care planning (ACP) helps families and paediatricians prepare and plan for end-of-life decision-making. However, there remains inconsistency in its practice with the limited literature describing what this preparation involves, and whether paediatricians recognise a difference between the process of ACP and its outcomes, such as resuscitation plans. This study aims to understand how paediatricians conceptualise ACP when caring for children with life-limiting conditions (LLC) who are unable to participate in decision-making for his/herself. DESIGN: Individual, semistructured, vignette-based qualitative interviews. SETTING: Acute inpatient and long-term outpatient paediatric care in three secondary and two tertiary centres in Victoria, Australia. PARTICIPANTS: 25 purposively sampled paediatricians who treat children with LLC, outside the neonatal period. Paediatricians were excluded if they worked within specialist palliative care teams or assisted in this study's design. RESULTS: Four key themes were identified when approaching end-of-life decision-making discussions: (1) there is a process over time, (2) there are three elements, (3) the role of exploring parental values and (4) the emotional impact. The three elements of this process are: (1) communicating the child's risk of death, (2) moving from theoretical concepts to practice and (3) documenting decisions about resuscitation or intensive technologies. However, not all paediatricians recognised all elements as ACP, nor are all elements consistently or intentionally used. Some paediatricians considered ACP to be only documentation of decisions in advance. CONCLUSION: There is a preparatory process of discussions for end-of-life decision-making, with elements in this preparation practised within therapeutic relationships. Complexity in what constitutes ACP needs to be captured in guidance and training to include intentional exploration of parental values, and recognition and management of the emotional impact of ACP could increase its consistency and value.

Decision-making approaches for children with life-limiting conditions: results from a qualitative phenomenological study.

BACKGROUND: For children with life-limiting conditions who are unable to participate in decision-making, decisions are made for them by their parents and paediatricians. Shared decision-making is widely recommended in paediatric clinical care, with parents preferring a collaborative approach in the care of their child. Despite the increasing emphasis to adopt this approach, little is known about the roles and responsibilities taken by parents and paediatricians in this process. In this study, we describe how paediatricians approach decision-making for a child with a life-limiting condition who is unable to participate in decision-making for his/herself. METHODS: This qualitative phenomenological study involved 25 purposively sampled paediatricians. Verbatim transcripts from individual semi-structured interviews, conducted between mid-2019 and mid-2020, underwent thematic analysis. Interviews were based around a case vignette matched to the clinical experience of each paediatrician. RESULTS: Two key themes were identified in the exploration of paediatricians' approach to decision-making for children with life-limiting conditions: (1) there is a spectrum of paediatricians' roles and responsibilities in decision-making, and (2) the specific influences on paediatricians' choice of approach for end-of-life decisions. In relation to (1), analysis showed four distinct approaches: (i) non-directed, (ii) joint, (iii) interpretative, and (iv) directed. In relation to (2), the common factors were: (i) harm to the child, (ii) possible psychological harm to parents, (iii) parental preferences in decision-making, and (iv) resource allocation. CONCLUSIONS: Despite self-reporting shared decision-making practices, what paediatricians often described were physician-led decision-making approaches. Adopting these approaches was predominantly justified by paediatricians' considerations of harm to the child and parents. Further research is needed to elucidate the issues identified in this study, particularly the communication within and parental responses to physician-led approaches. We also need to further study how parental needs are identified in family-led decision-making approaches. These nuances and complexities are needed for future practice guidance and training around paediatric decision-making. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Not applicable.